Roberto Clemente Essays - Roberto Clemente, Carolina, Puerto Rico

Roberto Clemente Essays - Roberto Clemente, Carolina, Puerto Rico Roberto Clemente Roberto Clemente played in an era dominated by the likes of Willie Mays, Mickey Mantle and Hank Aaron, Roberto Clemente was usually overlooked by fans discussing great baseball players. Not until late in his 18-year career did the public appreciate the talents of the 12-time All-Star of the Pittsburgh Pirates. Even though he was arguably the best baseball player at that time he was also a devote humanitarian which ultimately led to his death. Roberto Clemente Walker was born in Barrio San Anton in Carolina, Puerto Rico, August 18, 1934. Growing up he helped his father, who worked as a foreman on a sugar plantation and manager of a grocery store, load and unload trucks. The youngest of four children, Roberto excelled in track and field, winning medals in the javelin throw and short distance races. Despite his great success in the other sports his real love was baseball. He took advantage of the weather in Puerto Rico to play baseball year-round. He became consumed with the game. He squeezed a rubber ball to build up his throwing arm. While in high school, he signed a $60-a-month contract and he also received a $5,000 bonus and a new glove to play for Santurce, a professional team in the Puerto Rican league. He was 18 then and hit .356 in the winter of 1952-53. The next season, Brooklyn Dodgers scout Al Campanis held a baseball tryout clinic. He impressed Campanis enough that he offered him a $10,000 bonus. The 18 yr old had to wait until he graduated from high school before he could sign with a major league team. So he gave his word to Campanis that he would sign with the Dodgers. Later other teams were ready to offer him more money. The Milwaukee Braves were willing to give him a $30,000 bonus. But being a man of his word he stuck to his agreement and signed with The Brooklyn Dodgers. The talent-laden Dodger organization of the mid-1950s knew it would be difficult for the teenager to break into the majors with the Dodgers, therefor they tried to hide him in the minors. They were afraid that another team would draft him after the 1954 season. (There was a rule stating that any player who received a bonus of at least $4,000 had to be placed on the major league roster within a year or he could be drafted for $4,000.) Though he batted only 148 times for the Montreal Royals. There fears came true the Pittsburgh Pirates drafted him that November. Though only 20 and still learning the English language, He became a starter for the Pirates in 1955. He was rightfully Pittsburgh's pride and joy. The fans laugh at his antics, ooh- and-ah at his spectacular plays, roar in anticipation of his performance, and in general love the man. The Pirates, who were awful in his first three seasons, gradually built a strong club. In 1960 they won the National League pennant, with him hitting .314 with 16 homers and a team-high 94 RBI and making his first All-Star team. He continued his awesome play in the World Series, hitting .310 as the Pirates defeated the New York Yankees on Bill Mazeroski's famous ninth-inning homer in Game 7. But He never wore his 1960 championship ring. Feeling snubbed by the writers because he only finished eighth in MVP balloting, he wore an All-Star ring instead. His performance in 1960 was just the beginning of his All-Star, Hall of Fame career. In 1961 he was in the best shape of his life, finally getting over the chronic back problems that had bothered him since his rookie season. With his improved health, He hit .351 to win his first batting title, producing 201 hits. On November 14, 1964, he married Vera Cristina Zabala in Carolina, Puerto Rico. They had three sons. Roberto Jr., Luis Roberto and Roberto Enrique. Proud of his heritage Roberto insisted that Vera give birth to all three sons in Puerto Rico. From 1964 through 1967, He won three more batting titles. And in the year he didn't win one, he was voted the National League's MVP. He had a career best .371 batting average in 1967. The year he won the MVP, he finished fifth in batting at .317 but had career-highs with 29 homers and 119 RBI (second best in the league). The Pirates came in third, three games behind the first-place Dodgers. In 1971, Clemente (.341) led the Pirates to another pennant. Though one of the game's

Proton Definition - Chemistry Glossary

Proton Definition - Chemistry Glossary The primary parts of an atom are protons, neutrons, and electrons. Take a closer look at what a proton is and where its found. Proton Definition A proton is a component of an atomic nucleus with a mass defined as 1 and a charge of 1. A proton is indicated by either the symbol p or p. The atomic number of an element is the number of protons an atom of that element contains. Because both protons and neutrons are found in the atomic nucleus, they are collectively known as nucleons. Protons, like neutrons, are hadrons, composed of three quarks (2 up quarks and 1 down quark). Word Origin The word proton is Greek for first. Ernest Rutherford first used the term in 1920 to describe the nucleus of hydrogen. The existence of the proton had been theorized in 1815 by William Prout. Examples of Protons The nucleus of a hydrogen atom  or the H  ion  is an example of a proton. Regardless of the isotope, each atom of hydrogen has 1 proton; each helium atom contains 2 protons; each lithium atom contains 3 protons and so on. Proton Properties Because opposite charges attract each other, protons and electrons are attracted. Like charges repel each other, so two protons exert repulsion on each other.Protons are stable particles that do not decay into other particles. Free protons are common, often formed when sufficient energy is available to separate protons from electrons.Free protons are found in plasma. About 90 percent of cosmic rays consist of protons.The radioactive decay of free neutrons (which are unstable) may produce protons, electrons, and antineutrinos.

Topics Discussed in Class - My Participation in Class Assignment - 4

Topics Discussed in Class - My Participation in Class - Assignment Example Physical global marketing environment topic has given a concept and understanding of how to understand the physical environment while making global marketing decisions. After understanding the physical environment the lecturer moved us towards the understanding of PEST environment. This environment teaches us that how to conduct the analysis of overall environment when making an investment or starting a business. It gives the complete understanding of absorbing all these factors of business environment (Hewett & Bearden, 2001). From week 3 of the semester lecturer move us to give the real understanding of the global marketing and advertising. The topic we had covered was values and paradoxes in global marketing and advertisement. By this topic lecturer has developed a new frame of global marketing and advertising in the mind of all the students of the class. This topic teaches us the merits and demerits of globalizing the business along with the bright side and dark side of advertise ment in the international market. It found difficult to advertise the product in the global market because it needs to understand and analyze the environments of different countries, but this topic by lecturer helps us at a great extent in understanding global marketing and advertising. The complexity of understanding different environments of different countries has made uncomplicated by the lecturer in the week 4 by discussing the topic of dimensions of culture. This topic gave us an understanding of how to understand the characteristics of culture while understanding the culture to target with the purpose of business. This topic tells us the importance of understanding the characteristics of targeted people of different cultures. After giving the understanding of dimensions of culture lecturer contained us specifically towards the understanding of consumer behavior (Keegan and Green, 2012). Consumer behavior is changing with a fast pace with the advancement of technology and adap tation of technology by consumers. Consumers are now getting aware with the changing trends so marketer needs to be very active in understanding the changing trends of the market and importantly the changing taste and preferences of consumers. Consumer behavior study taught us the factors of understanding the changing tastes and preferences of consumer with the changing trend (Terpstra, 2000). After learning the topic of consumer behavior the lecturer gave the in-depth knowledge of consumer behavior for global market by discussing the topic of consumer ethnocentrism and disidentification. This topic gave the understanding of why consumer prefers international products over the domestic products or why consumer prefer domestic product over international brands. Many factors have been discussed in this topic which can affect the consumer preferences. This study is very important for the global marketers and we have learned a lot of techniques in this study. This study will help us in creating a brand in the presence of the needs and preferences of customers of the target market. Market is smart now so marketer needs to be smart as well in understanding the market moves. In the 9th week the lecturer moves us towards the basic

Probability and poker Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Probability and poker - Research Paper Example One of the common card games people engage in today is poker. It is played with a deck of fifty two cards. The ranks of a player’s cards and the combinations of these cards help determine the winner. In order to win big, players risk larger sums of money, hoping that they do not loose. Therefore, poker, just like any other gambling activity, is purely based on chance. In mathematics, one of the widely covered topics is probability, which is the study of the likelihood of an event occurring. For this reason, poker is directly related to this mathematical concept because outcomes are based on chance. Although most people question the importance of studying mathematics in school, the application of mathematical concepts in the real world are varied. Probability, which is a branch of mathematics, is one of the most used concepts in the world. This research aims at demonstrating how probability is used in gambling by focusing on the game of poker. For most poker players, there is strong belief in experience, skill and luck. Most players have an illusion of control in which a person beliefs he has the ability to understand and determine the outcome of uncertain events. Professional poker players are seen as those who have the ability to read their opponents with a high level of accuracy based on tiny or non-existent clues (Istrate, 55). Experienced players are those that have the ability to make accurate predictions, thereby increasing their chances of winning. In approaching the game of poker, most players look at their opponents to identify certain flaws or features that will help them to win the game. These flaws will tell them the weaknesses of their opponents, and thus capitalize on these weaknesses to win games. For this reason, players look at the position the opponents occupy on the table, their timings and pace, and the way they behave and move

The female criminality

The female criminality INTRODUCTION Women, undeniably, have been all but invisible for much of criminologys history.[1] Women have never been as prominent as their male counterparts in criminology, so much so, they can be said to have been ignored for many centuries and it was not until the turn of the 20th century that women who committed crimes were really included in criminological discourse. The advent of the feminist movements throughout this time beginning with the suffragettes to the current Fawcett commission established in 2003, has seen the realisation of womens rights and the struggle for equality supposedly at an end. But as we will see, non-feminist explanations for female criminality still leave much to be desired of as most parts of criminology along with society appears to be wedded to the conventional and stereotypical views of women, with the feminist explanations casting a new view on how women ought to be studied within the field of criminology. This paper aims to discuss and evaluate the various criminological explanations of womens involvement in crime, and suggest possibilities that obviate the traditional reasoning which passes female criminality off as purely biological. The discussion of the criminological explanations will take on two focal threads: why some women commit crime and why the majority do not. Using government statistics from England and Wales, specifically those after the second wave of the feminist movement in the 1960s and the present day, incidence, types and trends of female criminality will be explored. After the issues and problems within the statistics have been identified, I will then discuss whether criminologists can explain conclusively the reason for these findings. Do we need to study female criminality? Criminology is the study of crime which endeavours to explain and find solutions for deviant behaviour, yet there also needs to be a reason why this certain behaviour requires explanation. The theory welcomed by the government is that crime is conduct which has been agreed as contrary to the norms of society. Deviant behaviour is a problem which needs to be resolved, and once the problems have been acknowledged, policy makers can then make decisions and laws based on finding solutions to these problems. Smart notes that only those topics officially designated as social problems are studied, which she articulates is responsible for the sorry state of current knowledge and work on female criminality[2]; women are not seen as a problem, yet they live in the same world as men but commit less crime. This creates a great opportunity for society; finding underlying reasons why women do not commit as much crime as men could possibly be replicated to reduce the number of men committing crimes, or at least aid in the general control of crime. However, according to the Youth Justice Board in 2009, the relatively lower number of young women engaged in offending has meant, however, that most research and expertise has been developed in response to male offending[3]. Gender is one of the most certain predictors of offending[4], and women have never been seen as a social problem because their deviant acts in relation to men are very low. But as is sometimes suggested, statistical quantity alone is not sufficient to explain their lack of treatment.[5] Equality to men was the driving factor for the Womens Movements, but this immediately suggests that women are to be studied as a different entity, unduly undermining any common notion of equality from the outset. Arguably however, this hypothesis is true on some levels, but the equality women strive for is not equality of treatment, but equality of outcome. There are various stereotypical explanations for womens criminality which throughout history have been dominated by internal reasons; biology and psychology. However, what is interesting is how differently men are studied; from the outside. Rather than stating a man has an innate propensity for violence and deviant behaviour in his biological make-up, theorists use external reasons such as economical and class based expectations to explain behaviour. Women do not get the benefit of wholly non-biological determinist reasoning and it could be concluded that it is entirely their fault for simply being born a woman (e.g. Lombrosos female born criminals). In addition to this, female criminality needs to be studied so equality in outcome can be achieved from a justice perspective. Regarding the expectations of women in a social context, which will be discussed in depth later, if a woman was to act as expected, they are likely to be looked upon as the stereotypical weak and fragile being which needs protecting and this can be used to their advantage. But then also the opposite must not be ignored in that if they do not conform to the stereotypical female state then they will be twice condemned, which is extraordinarily unfair from a feminist perspective. Substitution and the media Hypothetically reversing the position of men and women, performed throughout this paper, when contrasting the consideration and study given to both sexes, is a very useful tool to shake out gender issues in criminality. The proliferation of the media also works to the same effect in that when one is to contrast coverage of crimes committed by men, they seem extremely commonplace and the public hardly blink an eye, but when the likes of Myra Hindley and Rosemary West committed perhaps masculine crimes, they were incredibly newsworthy. This can be down to the utmost shock that a woman has committed a crime and this produces a double deviance theory. Even now we do not expect women to behave in a criminal and inappropriate fashion, and the public are utterly shocked when we hear that a mother with the qualities of being tender and caring has shaken her baby to death. Heidensohn concurs, women involved in very serious crimes seem to provide the media with some of their most compelling images of crime and deviance.'[6] THE CRIMES WOMEN COMMIT: INCIDENCE AND TRENDS Despite their various shortcomings, the methods for measuring crime, such as police recorded crime statistics published annually by the Home Office and the British Crime Survey (BCS), have been able to provide an indication of crime trends in England and Wales. The statistics must be viewed with wary eyes because of the discussion that surrounds unreported crime which leads to resources being allocated into improving the collation of statistics; it should not be ignored that this improvement could account for a vast increase in crime rates. In addition to this, the numbers for women are very low to start with, so any slight increase could lead to a huge percentage increase which would skew the findings. Despite this, they will be used to show the incidence and trends in womens offending from: overall gender comparison, women under and over 18, the types of crime women are committing and finally cautioning rates. Gender and the feminist movements Although women gained more presence in society, the vote, property rights and other social triumphs in the first wave of the feminist movements at the end of the 19th century and early 20th century, it is really only during the second wave in the 1960s and 1970s that there was a substantial change in the general and criminal behaviour of women which would attract academic and critical comment. The criminal statistics saw a huge boost in numbers of women represented across the board: in 1958, the number of women found guilty for all indictable offences was 17,380: in 1965 this increased to 31,011, and amidst the full swing of the second wave of the feminist movement, in 1975 the number was at its highest at 60,356. In the 1960s, the ratio between men and women again for being found guilty of all indictable offences went down slightly also (from 7:1 to 6:1). The following decades saw a gradual decrease in numbers in the same respect, and in 2007 the numbers were 267,000 men to 45,300 w omen for both sexes and the ratio still lies at 6:1. The trend to be carried forward is that it remains consistent that women commit less crimes than men overall, and the highest increase in female crime was in the 1970s. Age The estimated peak age of offending is 15 for girls (and 17 for boys). According to a Ministry of Justice publication Statistics on Women and the Criminal Justice System[7] a higher proportion of all women arrested were aged between 10 and 17 than the proportion of men in that age group who were arrested, 25.7 per cent compared to 20.5 per cent. In addition to this, a study in 2009 by the Youth Justice Board[8] found that the offences most frequently committed by adolescent girls are theft and handling stolen goods, and that there has been a proliferation in the amount of girls committing violence against the person, especially if there is an existing relationship with the victim. It is also noted that recent use of alcohol is often linked to the offence/offending pattern. Home Office Statistics show the ratio of men to women found guilty or cautioned for all indictable offences is 3:1 for adolescents and 4:1 for adult women. From this two distinct trends can be deduced; there is what Worral describes as a problem population of young girls committing more crime, especially violent crime, than their older equivalent, and, that as a women gets older she is less likely to commit crime (desistence). Types of Crime As Smart notices, the proportion of women who engage in crime varies quite considerably according to the nature of the offence[9]. From the Home Office statistics for 2008/09[10] it can be seen that there are large differences between women and men in terms of their involvement with the formal criminal justice system, notably, and obviously, less women across all areas of crime. However, there appears to be a rise in theft, especially shoplifting which Smart terms a sex-related offence, a crime that has a preponderance to be committed by one sex more than the other. It follows then that this is the only area where women make significant contribution to the numbers; in 2007, 52,100 women were found guilty or cautioned for theft, the ratio between men and women is a mere 2:1. Although the ratio for fraud and forgery is also 2:1, the numbers are smaller: 9,500 women being found guilty or cautioned. By contrast, the highest ratio between men and women is that of burglary at 15:1 in 2007. The most prolific offence seen in the statistics is that of violence, but it appears to be low-level violence, harassment compared to men. Although it appears that it is more abundant for adolescent girls recently, over the last few decades there has been a dramatic increase of violence in women of all ages. For example, in 1965, 827 were found guilty of violence against the person: either murder, manslaughter, death by dangerous driving, assault or wounding. In 1975 this increased to 2,748 and then to 3,600 in 1985. In 1995 there was a slight, but not significant, decrease in (both men and) women committing violence against the person and until 2007 the number has steadily increased again to 4,500, the ratio since 1995 becoming closer (10:1 to 8:1 respectively). There has been a preponderance of women committing property offences, especially robbery as from the 1970s to present; the incidence has more than quadrupled from 200 in 1978 to 900 in 2007. Finally, according to the Women and the Criminal Justice System statistics[11], the violence that women commit is interfamily; partners and children, and homicides appear to be committed against intimate partners. Cautioning rates Women are more likely to be cautioned than men. Overall in 2007, 56% of women were cautioned instead of being officially processed by the courts for indictable offences compared to 36% of men. It was the same nearly 10 years ago also as in 1991, it was 54%. Looking at the cautioning rate for theft in 2007, out of 52,100 women, 26,000 were cautioned. In regards to violence against the person, 12,700 were cautioned out of 17,200 women. Since 2001 penalty notices for disorder (PND) can be issued for  £50 or  £80 depending on the severity of the offence. Inclusive of all ages, the Statistics on Women and the CJS found that in 2008/09 the top three reasons for issuing a penalty notice of disorder (PND) to women were: theft (retail under  £200) 20,453 (49%); causing harassment alarm or distress 8,051 (20%); and being drunk and disorderly 7,520 (18%) notably all of these appearing to require no physical strength. Although the amount of PNDs being issued has decreased from 207,544 in 2007 to 176,164 in 2008, there was a smaller decrease for the amount issued to women than to men. According to the Ministry of Justice, PNDs were designed to be a simpler and swift way for the criminal justice system to deal with low level criminal behaviour. CRIMINOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS Classical Criminology Early or classical criminologists accounted for female criminality on biological grounds; describing the psychological, physiological and hormonal characteristics of female criminals, or emphasising that their crimes were sexually based. Biological determinism is perhaps historically the most common yet underdeveloped explanation for female criminality, and has dominated discourse for a dreadfully long time, even intertwining itself into modern and contemporary theories despite mass criticism. Women being studied biologically can be immediately contrasted with the study of male criminality which, as Morris suggests[12], has nearly always used specifically socio-economic explanations such as subculture or labelling theory. Cesare Lombroso was the main projector of biological determinism, but this concept can be seen in the early works of W. I. Thomas and Otto Pollak in general, especially in regards to sexual delinquency. Thomas work was written in what Smart describes as the transitional period where criminology became more liberal. Pollak, although his work was carried out a long time after Lombrosos, is classed along with Lombroso and Thomas as a classical criminologist in that they all shared the same conventional views of women as Heidensohn summarises succinctly, Their view of women is heavily stereotyped. Women are defined according to domestic and sexual roles; they are dominated by biological imperatives; they are emotional and irrational.[13] Modern biological explanations have been exampled in this paper to highlight that biological theories remain to this day and when read in light of social theories, biological explanations as far as they go to explain female criminality, tell us more about societys perception of women than anything else. Lombroso One cannot read any textbook related to theories of female criminality without encountering at least a brief mention of the criminological pioneer Cesare Lombroso, whose work, in particular The Female Offender'[14], made specific mention of female criminals for perhaps the first time. Although completely discredited now, the mere fact that women became a topic of study was a phenomenal feat for criminology. With his son-in-law Ferrero and the help of others, along with the emphasis on scientific based study, Lombroso looked initially at 26 skulls and 5 skeletons of female offenders, namely prostitutes, 60 criminal subjects who died in prison and 17 others along with studying photo-portraits. The offences they were said to have committed were those such as infanticide, complicity in rape, arson, theft, homicide, abortion and poisoning. One of the studies within this work regarded the skull capacity and size. They were measured on account of each crime, and such conclusions were made for example, that fallen women have the smaller cranial capacity of all [offering] more analogy to the mentally afflicted than the sane. Essentially, Lombroso was explaining that women commit crime because of physical defects, and they were from the outset born criminals because of this. According to Newburns summary, Lombrosos female born criminal would specialise in not just one but several types of crime a nd surpasses her male counterpart in the refined, diabolical cruelty in which she commits her crimes and therefore a female criminal is a true monster. Also, Lombrosos theory perhaps edged towards the later idea of double deviance, in that the female criminal was doubly exceptionalbecause criminals are exceptions among civilised people and women are exceptions among criminals[15]. On the other hand, in explaining why women did not commit as much crime as men, he argued that firstly there were far fewer female born criminals than males and secondly and more offensive to read nowadays, he suggested criminal women were atavistic; a manifestation of the idea that women were not fully evolved, had underdeveloped intelligence and had less scope for degeneration. Criminality therefore was defined as a mental illness, because womens normal psychology was piety and weakness which meant the normal woman would not have the predisposition to commit crimes due to lack of intelligence, and were not affected by environmental issues as men would be. Evaluating this theory with modern eyes, the criticisms of this study are obvious, but one cannot lose context of the time in which it was carried out. It was, despite its failure, an undoubtedly sincere attempt to justify certain beliefs and theories.[16] However, it was completely ignored that the beliefs were founded on premises so naà ¯ve. Also, the theory suggests that there should be more women committing crimes, but according to the statistics this is not true. Of course, the study is archaic and did not really progress understanding of female criminality, as Heidensohn points out, the observations made of the photographs are as objective as an adjudicator in a beauty contest. However, it does tell us about the perceptions of women in that time and that worked as a starting point for later theorists to use as a point of comparison and critique. Thomas Thomas early work Sex and Society[17]was more akin to the works of Lombroso in that it studied women in regards to their physiological energy, suggesting that women were altogether less creative than men and therefore were not destined to commit crime. It was critically lacking in its applicability to all women, as it focussed on immigrants and peasant women already seen as a lower species in that time, and again based ideas on detrimental societal views of women. His later work, The Unadjusted Girl,[18] however, was a first glance at the social reasons why women could commit crime, namely that women were more aware of their deprivation in society in his time of writing and therefore likely to be frustrated, leading to the disorganisation of [their] life and potentially to sexual delinquency'[19]. Society transformed whilst Thomas was writing and that because of the breakdown of traditional restraints on women they are more likely to be unadjusted. Here, instead of appreciating the progress, he displays contempt for the ideological change in society and thus promotes repression. He theorised that women from the start were trying to find the legitimate role of the good wife, mother and dutiful daughter and in failure of this they acquired the illegitimate role, that is to say the degenerative criminal or more usually the sexual delinquent. The legitimate role was merely a sign of the times dictated by the middle-class norm, not an adequate expl anation. Pollak In his work, The Criminality of Women in 1961, Pollaks argument was that women commit just as much crime as men but it is hidden, partly because of the social order in which women live, but also because of a womens physiology particularly in regards to sex. He agreed with Lombroso and Thomas in that the most likely degeneration of women was to prostitution, which was true at that time, but has no bearing on prostitution now. Prostitutes now, according to the Home Office website[20] are not there voluntarily and are usually forced into it. He explained that women were empirically deceitful and manipulative in their nature because they conceal their menstruation every month, and that their passive nature during sexual intercourse enables women to discover and acquire confidence in their ability to deceive men in all respects.'[21] Obviously Pollak could not get away from his apparent infuriation that it was men on show with their erection, and women could hide how they really felt. Her e Pollak has taken this idea and translated it into the assumption that all women are vengeful, manipulative and cruel deceitful beings, not really moving on from the perceptions of women in Lombrosos time. Regarding the statistics, Pollak was perhaps correct when he argued that women are likely to commit offences against family members; such as poisoning their husbands, sexually abusing or killing their children. And also that persons are less likely to report a crime committed to them by a woman, as Smart notes the victims are usually children and are unable to report the crimes of their parents.[22] But his basis for this conclusion is flawed as he overlooks crimes committed by men towards their family, makes judgements completely based on the sex discrimination in society at the time and again completely ignores that this is the case. Because of this, he would probably be surprised by, and would not fit in with his conclusions, the amount of hidden wife battering and domestic abuse committed by men that has come to light recently if he were writing today. He also suggests that because of their nature, their acts are cunning and vengeful (putting poison into their husbands food) explained because their vengeance is a product of their monthly reminder of their inferior status to men and they are the persons closely related to the domestic task of food preparation, again decisively based on the perceived domestic role of women at the time. His study does correspond with the current statistics in that women are likely commit crimes within the home, but his original study was not based on any real evidence but on societal assumptions and preconceptions about the behaviour of men and women, which at the time he was oblivious to the fact that the power and societal position of men and women was completely imbalanced. Chivalry Theory Pollak, considering the very low number of female criminals, also proposed that men, especially those in the CJS, had an innate chivalry towards women. He argued that they have the same (he would argue misconceived) conceptions of women as his societal counterparts do; that women are weak and fragile, but they have deceived themselves into believing this and not realised the true nature of women. They are therefore are less likely to report, charge and convict women for the offences they engage in.'[23] In all aspects of life, Pollak has described that women are treated less severely than men to their advantage and this discrimination is to mens disadvantage. However, as Smart notes, although recognising a darker side of chivalry he has not mentioned the disadvantages of this discrimination towards women, and does not criticise the double standards for men and women; he treats it as the norm. However, it could be suggested that this theory is adequate because it is very much in effect today. The CJS currently appears to deploy this innate chivalry that protects women from the full rigours of the law, which could explain why a great deal more women are cautioned than men. Chivalry gains its credence because it is how one would expect women to be treated in a society which stereotypically views them as delicate and in need of protection. Interestingly, the chivalrous nature of the law can be seen in practice as with regard to infanticide in particular, where the Home Office stated in rejecting the proposal to abolish this offence: That a mother can be charged with infanticide on the basis of the ingredients for manslaughter is in keeping with the desire to treat such cases with compassion, in particular the desire not to force a mother to be brought face to face with the admission of whether or not she intended to kill her child.[24] (Emphasis added) However, despite of this grave offence, it is mainly true today for perhaps petty crimes, where the statistics suggest that women are more likely to be cautioned than thoroughly processed in the CJS. But this could also be explained, not by chivalry, but because there is a strong urgency for diversion in the CJS, costs are always a priority, as is police time and resources. However, Pollaks theory generalises the lenience that women get, although it is relevant on some levels, it pays no heed to the fact that after due process, female murderers and those who commit very serious offences will go to prison. Modern Biological Determinism Hormonal and Mental Imbalance Although Lombrosos work is said to have continued to exert influence long after it was written[25], Edwards states that too much emphasis is sometimes placed on Lombroso as godfather of biological criminology, arguing that medical professionals, such as Icard, Krafft-Ebing and Krugelsten walked the terrain far before Lombroso. Despite the criticisms of biological positivism, it cannot be ignored that all women have undeniable stages in their development cycle[26] namely in menstruation, menopause and after giving birth. The common theory in this respect, for why women do commit crime, is that hormonal imbalance dictates their deviant behaviour, particularly violence. Even Lombroso found this link in his work after finding that 72 out of 80 women arrested for resisting public officials were menstruating at the time[27]. Contemporary criminologists such as McClean, Wood, Devlin and Mercier have also claimed the physiological differences between men and women as a reason for criminality, but have not given substantial reasons as to why the rest of the female population have not committed crimes whilst going through the same crisis periods.'[28] Freud lends a suggestion here as he believed people are born with anti-social criminal qualities, but the better amongst them learn to control this. His theory suggests women do not have the fear of castration (as do men baring the Oedipus complex) which would be used to control their impulses, but suggests their passivity and want of affection controls them. It is commonly known that women experience mood swings, tension, water retention and headaches, however, 19th century theory exaggerates the mood swings into unaccountable violence and intolerable evil and cruelty. The works of the late Dr Dalton whom coined the term PMS to describe the changes women experience in these times, and it is accepted by the law that there can be uncontrolled aggression at certain times of the month, and PMS has the possibility to be a mitigating factor in the sentencing of female criminals under diminished responsibility in the law of evidence in England. For example, in a case in 1981, Christine English killed her boyfriend by driving into him. After pleading guilty to manslaughter on grounds of diminished responsibility due to pre-menstrual syndrome she was conditionally discharged. Furthermore, biological theory has manifested itself into the law of infanticide in that the Infanticide Act 1938 s.1 (1) states: ..where a woman by any wilful act or omission causes the death of her child being a child under the age of 12 months, but at the time of her act or omission the balance of her mind was disturbed by reason of her not having fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to the child or by reason of the effect of lactation. However it is curious to note that the medical profession refuses to accept this, in its definition, symptomatology, treatments or rates of manifestation[29]. Crimes such as infanticide can only be committed by a woman. Naturally, criminologists cannot in any way try to fit this crime into gender-neutral theories; there has to be something particular about women. On the other hand, infanticide still remains, according to the Law Commission in a Home Office Consultation Paper in 2008, a piece of legislation which is a practicable legal solution to a particular set of circumstances, which gives something to consider if there was no crime of infanticide. Accepting PMS and infanticide in the law gets varied responses, usually either outrage that a woman could literally get away with murder, or that recognition of biological happenings that every woman has is a positive step, however the deep rooted connotations are far more complex. Some might see it as positive that women are getting recognition, whereas others would see retrogressive irony in play; women want to gain equality, but they too are immersed in the want for allowances to be made for them, and also that PMS constructs womens normal experience and behaviour as abnormal'[30]. Furthermore, the masculinity of law does not understand womens problems, so it is easier to accept mental imbalance than challenge the norms of society, and so an account of PMS, as Raitt and Zeedyk suggest, is striking only because social norms dictate a particular baseline for womens behaviour and when they fail to meet that expectation, illness provides a convenient explanation[31] Consequently, Smart notes that, in principle, the law should be held to be equally applicable to all regardless of sex, (noting also, race, class and other distinctions) but in reality this does not happen. There are at all times a number of societal connotations or stereotypes, such as the chivalrous nature of men, and the stereotypical way women are perceived which overshadow what should be happening, and determine what does happen in regard to the study of crime, and although this should not be the case, it does reveal the underlying, discriminatory views towards women that would better be abandoned for the sake of the quality of explanations for criminality. Finally, it would be interesting to use substitution here. Firstly if women were in power in society, there would be no explanations for deviant behaviour down to PMS, as having PMS at certain times or experiencing the effects of childbirth and lactation would be the norm. There would probably be explanations for why men behave they do, for example neurosis because they cannot have children. Brain Function Although truly biological theories seem to have disappeared from criminology[32], Lansdell, in a study of laterality of verbal intelligence in the brain in 1962[33] noticed that when males and females had strokes or lobotomies, their recovery processes were different even though the injury was the same: women recovered better because they found that their brain hemispheres are more connected, enabling the female brain to possibly assimilate all sorts of information that male brains would keep separate. How this would become an explanation for female criminality would be quite complex and I would profess that it would see criminologists using these findings to merely support the well known stereotype that women can multitask. Nevertheless, it could be suggested that women have less chance of being caught as they could plan the offence thoroughly, or be able to perceive the consequences of their actions before they can perform an act which would render them criminal, but these would am ount to huge generalisations, and would not conclusively explain why women do or do not commit crime. Although it is arguable that as with any disease of the body

National Health Service Essay

The NHS stands for the National Health Service, which provides healthcare for all UK citizens based on their need for healthcare rather than their ability to pay for it. It is fully funded by full-time workers taxes. The aim of the health service is to ensure that anyone can receive the medical care they need, regardless of their age, circumstances or financial situation. Advantages * To meet the needs of everyone * To be free at the point of delivery * The NHS provides care free of charge to most UK residents * Depending on the nature of your problem you may be treated by a doctor, dentist or optician * There are is a range of healthcare services offered by the NHS, covering every concern from flu to vaccinations, mental illness to ectopic pregnancy care. * When you seek help because you feel unwell, the medical practitioner you visit will be able to inform you of the care options available to you. * Every person in England having access to his or her own confidential medical records. * Helpdesk service available 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Disadvantages * Long waiting lists * Your situation of needing care may not be as important as others * They may use low quality equipment on you because you are not paying for the treatment, therefore your health issue may not be resolved as quickly or properly with incorrect equipment. * People will abuse the system by using is too much when it is not necessary or they have not paid taxes sufficiently.- The United States is now the only remaining MEDC country without some form of free access to a medical service, Partly because policy debates are driven by false, self defeating beliefs. One thought of this is that the United States cannot afford to cover the uninsured, when in fact a coordinated financing system is the key tool for holding costs down, and there are affordable ways to do it. Also many believe that the United States is so large and diverse that any lessons one might benefit from a smaller and less diverse countries do not apply here. Universal health care system would mean low salaries, rundown facilities, poor quality, and endless waits to see a doctor, as a good example of this is with the NHS. The current/ new NHS * The plan for the new NHS by the present government is even more ambitious than the transformation by Margaret Thatcher. * The NHS was widely discussed as no longer sustainable or no longer affordable. Therefor the rate of Tax has been increased largely. * Demands are rising, as are costs. And this is all happening at a time when money is tighter than ever. * Two thirds of hospital beds are now estimated to be occupied by the over 65s at any one time. * Nurses have been given a lot more responsibility. * IVF treatment is helping thousands of couples conceive each year. * Organ transplants are now saving over 3,000 lives a year. * Obesity, drinking and smoking. All three cause disease and death, adding billions of pounds to the NHS bill.

Dictionary of Old and Obsolete Occupations - W

The occupations found recorded in documents from prior centuries often appear unusual or foreign when compared to the occupations of today. The following occupations beginning with W are generally now considered old or obsolete, although some of these occupational terms are still in use today. Wabster  - weaver Wadding maker  - maker of wadding (usually made of old rags or cotton) for stuffing upholstered furniture Wafer maker  - maker of church communion wafers Wagoner  / Waggoner  - teamster not for hire. The WAGNER surname is the 7th most common name in Germany. Wailer  - Mine worker who removed impure rocks in a coal mine Wain house proprietor  - owner of a building where wagons could be parked for a fee Wainius  - ploughman Wainwright  - wagon maker Waiter  - customs officer or tide waiter; one who waited on the tide to collect duty on goods brought in Waitman  - Nightwatchman who guarded the gates of a city, usually marking the hours with the ringing of a small bell Waker  - A person whose job was to wake workers in time for early morning work Walker / Waulker  - fuller; cloth trampler or cleaner. The WALKER surname is the 28th most popular name in the United States. Waller  - 1) Specialist in building walls; 2) salt maker. The WALLER surname is one variation of WALL. Wardcorn  - Watchman armed with a horn for sounding the alarm on the event of intruders or trouble. Common during medieval times. Warker  - Specialist at building walls, embattlements, and embankments Warper / Warp Beamer  - a textile worker who arranged the individual yarns which created the warp of the fabric upon a large cylinder called a beam. Water bailiff  - 1) A customs officer who searched ships as they came into port; 2) one employed to protect fisheries from poachers Water carter / Water carrier  - Someone who sold fresh water from a traveling cart Waterguard  - customs officer Wattle hurdle maker - one who made a special type of fence from wattle to contain sheep Weatherspy - astrologer Webber / Webster  - weaver; operator of looms. The WEBER surname is the 6th most common German name. Wet nurse  -  A women who feeds the children of others with her own breast milk (usually for a fee) Wetter - either one who dampened paper during the printing process, or one in the glass industry who detached glass by wetting Wharfinger  - a person who owned or was in charge of a wharf Wheel tapper -  Ã‚  a railway worker who checked for cracked wheels by striking them with a long-handled hammer and listening to their ring Wheelwright  - builder and repairer of wagon wheels, carriages etc. Wheeryman - one in charge of a wheery (light rowboat) Whey cutter  - a worker in the cheese industry Whiffler  - an officer who went before an army or procession to clear the way by blowing a horn or trumpet Whipcorder  - a maker of whips Whipperin - in charge of managing the hounds in a hunt Whisket weaver  - basket maker White cooper  - one who makes barrels from tin or other light metals White limer  - one who painted walls and fences with white lime Whitesmith  - tinsmith; worker of tin who finishes or polishes the work Whitewing - street sweeper Whitster  - bleacher of cloth Willow plaiter - one who made baskets Wing coverer  - a worker who covered airplane wings with linen fabric Wonkey scooper  - person who operated a scoop-type contraption from a horse Woolcomber - one who  operated machines that separate fibers for spinning in the woolen industry Woolen billy piercer - worked in a woolen mill to piece together broken yarns Wool man / Wool sorter - one who sorted wool into different grades Wright  - a skilled worker in various trades. The WRIGHT surname is the 34th most common name in the United States.